Environmental Science 1 is an introductory course providing an integrated multi-disciplinary approach to the science of the environment. It is taught by a team drawn from the Departments of Chemistry, Geography and Topographic Science, Physics and Astronomy and the Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences. 

The course covers a wide range of environmental topics in four sections :- 

1.   The Physical World ( e.g. continental drift, earthquakes, climate, weathering processes ), 

2.   The Living World ( e.g. the diversity of plants and animals, animal ecology,  human populations ) 

3.   Soils and Pollution (e.g. soils, radioactivity, water pollution, the ozone layer) 

4.   Resources and Conservation ( e.g. resource reserves, energy from biomass, green politics, vulnerable habitats). 
 

Environmental Science 1 provides  broad basis for the development of specialist studies in later years. In the second year and at honours level, Environmental Science divides into the individual sciences with honours courses currently available in Environmental Biogeochemistry, Environmental Chemistry, Environmental Chemistry and Geography and Aquatic Bioscience.  Further courses are planned.
 
 

Strengths of Course 

  At Glasgow University the teaching of the environmental sciences is firmly rooted in the parent science departments providing a strong scientific base to the teaching of each applied environmental science.   Therefore graduates are environmental specialists in their own science discipline. In addition the full resources of each science department can be available for application to environmental issues. The standard of teaching is very high. Teaching in 4 of the departments contributing to these degrees has been assessed as excellent. 
 

Environmental Earth Science

Lecturer:  Dr Veron Phoenix, Geographical and Earth Sciences

Outline:

A series of seven lectures designed to provide an overview of the environmental science course, and of the environmental significance of the earth processes.  The aims are to describe the fundamental geological processes which control the nature of the earth's surface, and to explain how these processes significantly affect, often catastrophically, the environments of all living organisms on the planet.  The lectures also deal with the internal structure  and age of the Earth and how these have been determined, the absolute and relative rates of geological time, plate tectonics, and the environmental effects of volcanoes and earthquakes.

A summary of the  lecture notes is available as 'Powerpoint' presentation on the WWW for revision purposes, after lectures have finished, from http://www.earthsci.gla.ac.uk/staff/gbc
 

Recommended Additional Reading.

Environmental Geology (3rd Ed) CARLA MONTGOMERY (1992)
Understanding Earth (3rd Ed) F.PRESS & E. SIEVER, 2000
 
 

Topic 1   Introduction to the Course. 

Global warming (now and in the past), Earth processes affecting global climate, volcanoes, links with carbon dioxide in atmosphere, extinctions in Earth history and their causes, natural nuclear reactors, carbon cycling and carbon dioxide released by geological processes

The student should :-

• Appreciate the scope of environmental science
• Understand that the Earth is constantly changin
• Understand that many environmental topics are poorly understood

Suggested Reading
Cunningham and Saigo, 8th Edition, Chapter 1
 

Topic 2   Composition of the Earth

Dimensions of the Earth,  Drilling into the Earth, Exotic blocks brought to surface in volcanoes, heat in the Earth, Meteorites, Use of Geophysical techniques to investigate structure and composition of the Earth,  Nature and composition of Core, Mantle, Crust - position and significance of Asthenosphere, Lithosphere, 
This lecture will include a 19-minute video demonstrating the acquisition of  Geophysical data from deep within the earth (Shell - Search for Oil)

The student should :-

• Understand the structure of the Earth-Crust-Mantle-Core, and the characteristics of each and their relationships to each other
• Learn about the gross chemical composition of the Earth
• Appreciate how geophysical techniques are used to investigate the structure of the Earth

Topic 3   Plate Tectonics

Dynamic Earth, plates moved by convection cells, Theory of Plate Tectonics, Constructive, Destructive and Conservative Plate Boundaries, and their environmental consequences, Continent-Continent , Continent-Ocean, Ocean to Ocean plate boundaries - their nature and examples of each. 

This lecture will include an 18-minute video demonstrating Plate Tectonics (Earth Science Video Library - Plate Tectonics, The Puzzle of the Continents)

The student should :-

•  Understand the evidence for Plate Tectonics
• Appreciate the differences between convergent, divergent and transform boundaries between plates
• Understand how plates move
• Appreciate the environmental consequences at plate boundaries
• Learn about the major tectonic plates and their movements

Topic 4  Types of Rocks

Igneous, Metamorphic and Sedimentary rocks - their origins, and uses 

This lecture will include a 13-minute video demonstrating major rock types and their method of formation (Shell - Learning about rocks)

The student should :-

• Know the major rock types and their characteristics
• Know about Sedimentary rocks and their characteristics and examples
• Know about Igneous rocks and their characteristics and examples
• Know about Metamorphic rocks and their characteristics and examples

Topic 5   Geological Time

Rates of geological processes - sea-floor spreading, growth of mountains, subsidence, erosion, sediment accumulations in deep ocean, granite cooling. Absolute age determinations, and their history - Ussher, Buffon, Lord Kelvin, Walcott, Joly, radiometric dating (methods, examples of half-lives), oldest rocks on Earth.

This lecture will include a 20-minute video demonstrating how age relationships of rocks are determined (Geological Society of America - The Earth has a History)

The student should :-

• Appreciate the length of geological time
• Understand the relative rates of Geological processes - eg. sea-floor spreading, mountain formation etc.
• Learn how attempts to determine the age of the earth have developed over time
• Understand how absolute radiometric geological ages are calculated

Topic 6   Earthquakes and Volcanoes 

Causes and environmental effects of Earthquakes and Volcanoes, plate tectonic movements,  earthquake severity, motion, tidal waves,  large earthquakes and their effects, human and monetary costs, UK earthquakes, ground motion, liquefaction, predicting earthquakes; volcanic eruptions and climate change, pyroclastic flows, toxic gases, lavas. Tidal waves, examples of major volcanic events and their consequences.

The student should :-

• Appreciate the environmental consequences of volcanoes and earthquakes
• Learn about the Richer and Mercalli Scales of Earthquake Intensity
• Understand the environmental consequences of major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
• Examine briefly the prospects of predicting earthquakes and  volcanoes

Topic 7  Geological History of New Zealand

Unusual animals and plants, legacy of Gondwanaland, no mammals except bats, Plate Tectonics moved NZ before mammals evolved,  Geological processes affecting landscape of NZ and the animals inhabiting it, examples of evolution by birds into ecological niches inhabited elsewhere by mammals, unusual adaptions of animals and plants, intense Geological activity continuing along a plate tectonic boundary. 

This lecture will include a 30-minute video on the geological evolution of New Zealand.

The student should :-

• Understand the geological processes that have shaped the New Zealand landscape
• Appreciate how geological phenomena have helped shape the evolution of life on New Zealand
• Learn the major features of the geological history of New Zealand over the last 80 million years
• Appreciate the environmental hazards posed by the continuing geological processes in New Zealand

The Hydrosphere

Lecturer: Dr Gordon Dickinson, Geographical and Earth Sciences 

Outline:

This series of 10 lectures and 2 laboratories aim to provide a link between the preceding lectures relating to geological structure and the topics that follow concerning the biosphere. In essence it provides a summary of those processes and landforms that develop at the interface of rocks and atmosphere and characterise the world that we inhabit. For example, climate influences agricultural potential, weathering of rocks influences the fertility of soils and the surface processes of river and glacial action affect the nature of the surface on which vegetation grows. These processes are important to the functioning of ecosystems and so affect human populations in a variety of direct and indirect ways. All of these processes are related to climate and changes in climate affect how processes operate. Within this it is vital to discriminate between long term changes driven by natural climatic changes from the short-term changes that might be driven by human modification of climate. 

Recommended Reading

Cunningham W.P. and Saigo B.W. 2005 Environmental Science. 8th ed. WCB. Chapters. 14 and 15. 
Briggs, D.J. and Smithson, P.A. 1985 Fundamentals of Physical Geography. Hutchinson Bradshaw, M. and Weaver, R. 1993 Physical Geography an Introduction to Earth Environments.  Mosby.
Park, C. 1997 The Environment. Routledge.
 

Topic 1 The Atmospheric System

Composition of the atmosphere. Energy in the atmosphere. Radiation budget. Heat and moisture in the atmosphere.

The student should:-

• Be able to identify the main constituents of the atmosphere
• Understand way in which the atmospheric system works
• Understand the atmosphere heat budget
• Be able to identify ways in which heat is redistributed on earth

Topic 2  The Atmosphere in Motion

Atmospheric circulation and wind. Global patterns of circulation. Surface winds. Weather systems.

The student should:-

• Be able to identify the way in which heat drives convection in the atmosphere
• Understand the global pattern of circulation
• Understand the energy transfers associated with this circulation
• Be able to identify air masses and weather systems

Topic 3  Climates

Elements of climate. Types of climate, regional climates, tropical, temperate, polar. Local climates, mountain climates, valley climates, sea breezes.  Urban climates
The student should:-
 

• Be able to identify the main elements of climate
• Recognise the main types of world climate
• Recognise the main types of local climate
• Be able to explain local climate

Topic 4  The Global Water Balance

The hydrological cycle, precipitation inputs, latitudinal variations.  Evaporation and transpiration. Transfers, advection, runoff, infiltration and percolation. Patterns of precipitation.

The student should:-

• Be able to identify the main characteristics of the hydrological cycle
• Understand the importance of evaporation and transpiration
• Be able to identify the main water pathways on the surface and subsurface
• Understand the ways in which precipitation is distributed over the earth

Topic 5  Water budgets

Evapotranspiration.  Moisture budgets, water storage and drought.  Groundwater stores, aquifer depletion and pollution.  Storage enhancement schemes.

The student should:-

• Understand what is meant by moisture budget
• Be able to explain how moisture budget affects humans
• Understand groundwater storage 
• Be able to explain aquifer depletion, storage enhancement and water conservation

Topic 6   Weathering of the Earth’s Surface 

Agents of weathering.  Nature of weathering materials, rock structure and lithology.  Weathering types, mechanicaland chemical.  Spatial aspects of weathering.

The student should:-

• Be able to identify the main agents of surface weathering
• Understand the role of structure and lithology in weathering
• Be able to differentiate and explain the main types of weathering processes
• Be able to describe the spatial patterns of weathering

Topic 7  Hillslope processes

Slopes and mass wasting, hillslope stability. Hillslope processes, heave, flow and slide.  Trigger mechanisms of slope failure.  Slopes and humans.

The student should:-

• Understand what is meant by mass wasting
• Be able to identify the main types of slope process
• Be able to explain the trigger mechanisms for slope failure
• Understand the relationship between humans and slopes.

Topic 8  The Influence of Rivers

Streams and streamflow.  River erosion and deposition.  River landforms.  Rivers and humans, flooding.

The student should:-

• Be able to identify the controls on streamflow production
• Be able to explain the processes of fluvial erosion and deposition
• Recognise the principal types of fluvial landforms
• Understand the impact of flooding on humans and rivers

Topic 9  The Influence of Ice

Water and ice.  Glacial erosion and deposition. Glacial landforms. Glaciers and climate change.

The student should:-

• Be able to identify the main controls on glacier development
• Be able to explain the processes of glacial erosion and deposition
• Recognise the principal types of glacial landform
• Understand the link between glaciers and climate change

 Topic 10   Causes of Long Term Climate Change

Timing and nature of climatic change. External forcing by variations in solar radiation and earth geometry. Internal forcing by atmospheric factors, geography and albedo. Fitting cycles to actual changes and future warming.

The student should:-

• Be able to identify the timescale of climate change
• Be able to explain the main external mechanisms that might force climate change
• Be able to explain the main internal mechanisms that might force climate change
• Be able to discriminate between human-related climatic changes and long-term natural trends. 

Origin and Evolution of Life

Lecturer:  Dr Vernon Phoenix, Geographical and Earth Sciences 

Outline:

Four lectures that aim to:-

• make students aware of the current theories about the origin of life on earth, and the problems and questions that remain. 
• describe the major stages in the evolution of life on earth, and the possible causes of major extinction and radiation events.
• explain why a classification system is essential, and the role that such a classification system plays in helping us understand the pattern of global diversity, both in the past and today.

Summary lecture notes available as 'Powerpoint' presentation on the WWW (for revision purposes, after lectures have finished) from http://www.earthsci.gla.ac.uk/staff/gbc)
 

Topic 1  The Origin of Life

Pre-Biotic Environmental Conditions on Earth, early Evolution, advanced Evolution, Precambrian microfossils, models of the origin of life, Oparin, Haldane, Miller, etc.  Molecular evidence

The students should:-

• Appreciate the four major achievements that laid the groundwork for the origin of life as a scientific problem
• Understand the main historical theories on the origin of life:- a.  Oparin Model  b.  Haldane Model  and c. Template Models
• To learn about modern attempts to explain the origin of life in volcanic situations (such as hydrothermal vents)
•  Appreciate the relevance of current interest in the possibility of life on Mars.

 Topic 2  The Evolution of Life

Five Kingdoms, progressions of faunas from Palaeozoic to the present day, adaptive radiation, development of skeletons

The students should:-

• Appreciate the characteristic organisms present in:- a.  Precambrian times,  b.  the adaptive radiation at the base of the Cambrian (and the possible reasons for this),  c.  the Palaeozoic world and d.  the Modern world
• Understand the role of atmospheric evolution
• Appreciate the importance of shells and skeletons

Topic 3  Exceptional Preservation

Exceptionally-preserved faunas and floras, their environmental significance, based on desscription of a range of exceptional fossil discoveries -, Burgess Shale, Solenhofen Limestone.

The students should:-

• Understand the importance of exceptionally preserved fossils in the geological record 
• Appreciate the conditions that promote the exceptional preservation of fossils
• Understand the importance of exceptionally preserved faunas and floras for our understanding of the history of life on the planet

Topic 4  Catastrophies in the History of Life

Natural extinction and human-caused extension, geological processes that bring about extinctions

The student should:-

• appreciate the roles of Catastrophes (Mass Extinction's) in the history of life on Earth
• understand the possible geological explanation for the causes of Mass Extinction's and their relevance to the present day.
• be able to compare and contrast the causes and effects of the Cretaceous-Tertiary, and the Permian-Triassic extinction events

Topic 5  Classification of Living Organisms

Linnean Binomial Classification, taxonomy, classification, phylogeny, species concept in biology and earth sciences, molecular and morphological techniques, why is taxonomy important.

The students should:-

• understand the principles of Linnean Classification

• understand techniques and procedures of morphology-based classification
• appreciate the basis for classifications based on molecular systematics
• understand the use of cladistics in classification
• appreciate why a classification system is important

Suggested Reading
   Cunningham and Saigo, 8th Edition, Chapter 13, p. 217-218
 
 

Plant Ecology
 

Lecturer: Dr Susan Rosser, Division of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, IBLS

Outline:

A series of 4 lectures and 1 laboratory class, which aim to demonstrate the importance of plants as primary producers and their diversity within a variety of ecosystems. The classes are focused on how plants have evolved to survive under a range of often extreme environmental pressures. The impact of human activities such as agriculture and industry will be discussed along with the importance of maintaining plant biodiversity. 
 

Topic 1. The nature of plant communities

Plants as primary producers: Types of vegetation and how they form the basis of terrestrial biomes.

The student should:-

• Know the basics of photosynthesis and the carbon cycle
• Know how primary productivity and nutrient availability interact to affect ecosystems
• Have an understanding of the variety of biomes including deserts, grasslands forests and tundra.

Topic 2. Plant adaptation to their environment

Discussion of different environments and the strategies plants have employed to adapt to them. The discussion will include environmental extremes of temperature, nutrient limitation, metal and salt concentration.

The student should:

• Be aware of the relative importance of different environmental stresses on types of vegetation.
• Know how particular plant species are adapted to tolerate these stresses
• Understand the concept and some of the mechanisms of competition between plants

Topic 3. Agriculture and Industry

Discussion of the impact of land use on productivity and species diversity. Some discussion of the domestication of plant species for agricultural purposes.

The student should:-

• Have an understanding of the various types of agriculture
• Understand the importance of micro-ecosystems such as field boundaries
• Be aware of how plant species have been domesticated 
• Be aware of the impact of agriculture and industry on species diversity

Topic 4. Importance of maintaining plant species diversity

Discussion of why habitats are becoming lost and degraded and the contributing factors. The role of plant biodiversity as a valuable resource for future agricultural, medicinal and biotechnological advances. 

The student should:-

• Have an understanding of the factors contributing to the decline and extinction of wild species
• Have an appreciation of plants potential ecological,  medicinal and biotechnological value.
• Have some understanding of bioethics

The Diversity of Animals

Lecturer Prof David Houston, Division of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology, IBLS

Outline:

A series of 4 lectures and1 laboratory class which aims to give a broad introduction to the diversity of invertebrate and vertebrate animal life and how they have adapted to different marine and terrestrial environments.

Topic 1 Animals without backbones

The diversity of body organisation found in invertebrate phyla.
 

• The student should:-Appreciate how the animal kingdom is classified.
• Understand how phyla differ in their basic body organisation.
• Be able to give examples of the most important invertebrate animal groups

Topic 2 Vertebrate diversity.

The basic features of vertebrate animals, and how their basic body organisation has allowed them to diversity into a great variety of forms.

The student should:-

• Understand the basic features of vertebrate organisation.
• Be able to trace the evolutionary history of vertebrates
• Be able to give examples of the main vertebrate groups.

Topic 3 Marine communities

The basic features of marine communities, with examples of the different types of community.

The student should:-

• Appreciate the importance of planktonic organisms in the development of marine food chains
• Know the basic features of pelagic, benthic and abyssal animal communities.
• Understand why marine communities differ in the major animal groups which make up their communities.

Topic 4 Terrestrial communities

The problems animals faced when moving from the aquatic environment onto land,  the major types of terrestrial animal communities.

The student should:-

• Understand the difficulties faced by animals living on land, and why many animal groups have failed to develop terrestrial forms.
• Appreciate the major types of terrestrial animal  communities
• Recognise the importance of tropical rain forests, why they are so complex, and the extent of animal diversity they contain.

Population Processes

Lecturer Dr Dan Haydon, Division of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology, IBLS

Outline:

A series of 6 lectures and 1 laboratory class which aims to give a broad introduction to the processes controlling population size in animal and human populations
 
 

Topic 1  Population Processes in Animals

An introduction to population processes and ecology - the interaction of birth, death, immigration and emigration rates, methods ' use to estimate population sizes.  The concept of Cohort and Static Life Tables and rates of increase (Ro), and ways of interpreting these.  Survivorship curves, and how these depend on the type of animal studied.

The student should:-

• Be able to understand what processes are involved in the study of demography.
• Be able to describe methods of estimating population size, including the Lincoln Index (with its assumptions).
• Understand what Ro means, and how to interpret Life Tables and survivorship curves.

Topic 2  Population Regulation

Concerns principles behind regulation of animal populations - the intrinsic (or instantaneous) rate of increase, r, and concept of exponential growth.  How this is usually modified into a logistic growth due to carrying capacity (K). Density-dependent and -independent birth and death rates and their causes, reasons for populations not being at carrying capacity, competition and the niche.

The student should:-

• Be able to define exponential and logisitic relationships, and understand what 'r' and 'K' mean.
• Be able to explain the principles of density-dependent and -independent regulation, with examples, and explain their relative importance.
• Be able to define fundamental and realized niches, and their importance in interspecific competition.

Topic 3  Variation between Animal Species

Explains how populations of predators and their prey may show cycles (e.g. snowshoe hare and lynx, voles).  Concept of trophic levels, and the factors that determine the relative abundance/biomass of each level (e.g. transfer of energy, pyramid of numbers, ratio of production to biomass).  Variation between species at the same trophic level - idea of r- and K-selected species, and their characteristics.

The student should:-

• Be able to describe the phenomenon of population cycles (and their possible causes).
• Understand the meaning of trophic levels, pyramid of numbers, biomass, primary producers, r- and K-selection.
• Be able to describe why a 'pyramid of numbers' does not always occur.
• Be able to describe the characteristics of r- and K-selected species, and give examples.

Topic 4  Human Populations

Historical review of changes in population size and rates of population expansion, with impact of tool-making, agricultural and industrial revolutions.  Discussion of reliability of census information.  Measures of human fertility and reproductive potential, physiological and social constraints on reproduction.  Age-related changes in mortality rates, social controls on lifespan (e.g. infanticide), historical changes in life expectancy and cause of death.  Relationship between birth and death rates - demographic transition as both rates fall but not in synchrony (comparison of developed and 3rd world nations).  Causes of decline in birth rate in developed nations, effect of contraception, and implications for both world population size and population structure.

The student should:-

• Be able to describe the changes in world population size over recorded time, and understand why these have come about, including the effects of the demographic transition.
• Understand the problems we face with the population explosion, and how these
• vary between countries.
• Be able to define different measures of fertility.
• Be able to describe the factors (both physiological and sociological) that have influenced birth and death rates in different cultures and through recorded time.

Topic 5   Population dynamics and extinction

Introduction to the theory of island biogeography, population dynamics in fragmented landscaped, local extinction, and metapopulation dynamics.  Causes of population decline and extinction including fragmentation, novel and generalist predators and pathogens, and the concept of demographic stochasticity.

The student should:-

•  Be able to relate the theory of island biogeography and its use in understanding the variation in species richness 
•  Be able to explain the concept underlying metapopulation persistence 
•  Be able to summarize the major causes of population decline and extinction 

Suggested Reading 
Cunningham & Saigo, 8th Edition. Chapter 11 & 13. 
 

Soils and Chemical Processes in the Environment

Lecturer: DR I D Pulford,   Environmental Chemistry

Outline:

A series of 8 lectures and related laboratory classes on soils and the chemical processes in the environment which aims to provide:-
 

• An understanding of  the nature of soils and their formation.
• An understanding of  how soil types vary depending on environmental conditions.
• An understanding of the main soil processes, and how these affect mobility of chemical species in the natural environment.
• An appreciation of soil as a resource, the maintenance of its properties and problems of soil degradation.

No single textbook covers all the material given in this course of lectures.  Some information can be found in the two general recommended texts.

W.P. Cunningham & B.W. Saigo  Environmental Science
G.T. Miller     Living in the Environment

The basic chemistry is described in any standard chemistry textbook.
More detail on soils and soil processes may be found in

E.A. Fitzpatrick An introduction to Soil Science
 (Copies of both the 1st and 2nd editions are on Floor 2 Glasgow University Library)
 

The Powerpoint presentations will be available via the course web site, after the lectures are completed, to aid with revision.
 

Topic 1 Soil Formation

An introduction to soil and its uses.  Soil as part of the wider environment.  The soil profile and horizons.  Definitions of soil horizons.  The five soil forming factors – parent material, climate, topography, time, biotic factors.

The student should:-

• Appreciate that soils vary in nature both time and space and why study of soil is important as part of an environmental course.
• Be able to define and describe a generalised soil profile.
• Know what is meant by soil parent material; describe the main types of consolidated and unconsolidated materials; explain how the parent material affects the textural and nutritional properties of soil.
• Know the main climatic influences, effect of topography, importance of time and the role played by biotic factors in soil formation.

Some of these points are amplified and used in later lectures.

Suggested Reading
Relevant sections in Cunningham & Saigo, Chapter 9 and Chapter 14 
Relevant sections in Miller Chapter 10
Also refer to lectures in term 1 by Dr Phoenix (Types of Rock) and Dr Dickinson (Weathering and Transport Processes).
 

Topic 2 Soils of the World

Climatic, vegetation and soil zones on a global basis.  Major soil types on a zonal basis.  Major soil types in Scotland.

The student should:-

• Understand how the global climatic, vegetation and soil zone are related.
• Know the main types of zonal soils (tundra; Podzols; Brown Earths; Chernozems; semi-arid soils; desert soils; soil of the humid tropics).
• Be able to describe the soil profile and main soil forming processes for the major soils of Scotland (Brown Earths; Podzols; Gleys; Peat).

Suggested Reading
Relevant sections in Cunningham & Saigo, Chapter 5 and 9.
 Relevant sections in Miller Chapters 6 and 10
 

Topic 3 pH, Buffering and Redox

Definition of pH and the pH scale.  Typical pH values in the environment. Concept of buffering.  Natural buffer systems in the environment.  Oxidation and reduction reactions; redox potential.

The student should:-

• Be able to define and explain the pH scale.
• Know what is an acid, neutral and alkaline system, and give examples of pH values for soil and water systems.
• Explain how a pH buffer system works.
• Explain what is meant by redox potential.
• Give values for redox potential and important redox reactions for: an aerated system, a moderately reduced system and an extremely reduced system, and give examples of these three systems in the natural environment.

Some of these points are amplified and used in later lectures.

Suggested Reading
Relevant sections in Cunningham & Saigo, Chapter 3 and Chapter 16.
Also refer to term 2 laboratory manual.
 

 Topic 4 Processes Controlling Mobility of Ions in the Environment I – Weathering, Solubility and Precipitation

Importance of mobility of chemical species in the environment. Solubility.  Weathering processes: dissolution, oxidation/reduction, acid hydrolysis. Solubility reactions: dissolution, hydrolysis, acid hydrolysis.  Leaching of soluble components of soil and soil type. Precipitation. Examples of precipitation reactions in environmental systems.

The student should:-

• Be able to explian the importance of mobility of chemical species in the environment.
• Be able to define and give examples of the following reactions: dissolution, oxidation / reduction, acid hydrolysis.
• Understand that dissolution reactions in the environment are slow, but driven by  leaching of products.
• Understand how the degree of leaching of a soil affects the soil type.
• Give examples of precipitation reactions, which are important controls on mobility of chemical species in the environment.

Some of these points are amplified and used in later lectures.
 

Topic 5 Processes Controlling Mobility of Ions in the Environment II – Exchange and Adsorption

Important surfaces involved in ion exchange: clays, humified organic matter, hydrous oxides; pH dependent variable charge.  Processes involving ion exchange.  Definition of adsorption.  Hydrous oxides surfaces. Processes in the environment involving adsorption.

The student should:-

• Be able to explain the process of ion exchange.
• Appreciate that cation exchange is of importance in the natural environment.
• Know which soil components are involved in ion exchange and their charge properties.
• Know for which environmental processed ion exchange is an important mechanism.
• Explain what is meant by adsorption.
• Know which soil components are involved in adsorption.
• Know for which environmental processes adsorption is an important mechanism.

Some of these points are amplified and used in later lectures.

Suggested Reading
Refer to term 2 laboratory manual.
 

Topic 6 Biological Mediated Reactions in the Environment

Carbon transformations and cycling.  Nitrogen transformations and cycling. 

The student should:-

• Be able to describe the processes of photosynthesis and respiration.
• Be able to explain what is meant by humification and decomposition.
• Be able to explain the processes in the carbon cycle, and have an appreciation of the relative importance of these processes.
• Know the various processes involved in the transformation on nitrogen in soils and sediments;  Nitrogen fixation; mineralisation; nitrification; immobilisation; denitrification.
• Be able to explain the importance of these processes in the cycling on nitrogen in the environment.

Some of these points also relate to aspects of other lectures in this series.

Suggested Reading
Relevant sections in Cunningham & Saigo, Chapter 3.
 Relevant sections in Miller Chapter 4
 

Topic 7 Cultivated Soil as a Resource

Concept of sustainable development.  Important properties of soils as a plant growth medium.  Soil physical properties: texture, structure.  Nutrient supply by soils.  Biological activity in soil.

The student should:-

• Understand the concept of sustainable use of soil.
• Know what are the properties of soils, which are important for plant growth.
• Be able to define soil texture, and explain its influence of soil properties,
• Be able to define soil structure and explain its influence on soil properties.
• Explain the concept of nutrient supply by soil.
• Explain the importance of biological activity in cultivated soil.
• Explain the importance of pH in cultivated soil.

Suggested reading
Relevant sections in Cunningham & Saigo, Chapter 9.
Relevant sections in Miller Chapter 10
Also refer to term 2 laboratory manual.
 

Topic 8 Derelict and Contaminated Soils

Definitions of derelict land and contaminated land; scale of the problem in UK and Scotland.  Concept of pollution linkage.  Organic contaminants.  Heavy metals.

The student should

• Be able to define derelict land and contaminated land, and give estimates of the scale of the problem.
• Understand the concepts of pollution linkage and risk.
• Know examples of organic contaminants, the problems of their measurement and treatment technologies.
• Know examples of heavy metal contaminants, the problems of their measurement and treatment technologies.

Suggested reading
Relevant sections in Cunningham & Saigo, Chapters 14 and 21.
Relevant sections in Miller Chapter 21.
 

Wastes and Pollution
 

Lecturer:   Dr  Hugh Flowers, Environmental Chemistry.

Outline:

A series of 14 lectures on wastes and pollution from an integrated viewpoint which aims 
to :-
 

• Provide a broad outline of wastes and pollution and their effects on the environment.
• Look at the toxic effects of wastes and pollution and the formulation of safety limits
• Cover selected pollution problems in detail 

The Powerpoint presentations will be available via the course web site, after the lectures are completed, to aid with revision.
 

Topic 1   Forms and Sources of Pollution

 A general introduction to this series of lectures. Definitions - pollution and waste materials. Survey of types and sources of pollution. Waste disposal strategies.  Effects of physical form and chemical properties of pollutants on their dispersal in the environment.  Types of impact of pollutants on the environment.

The student should :-

• Be able to give examples of different types and sources of pollution.
• Be able to differentiate between waste disposal strategies such as dilute and disperse, concentrate and contain etc.
• Understand how the physical and chemical properties of pollutants affect their dispersal, stability and impact in the environment.
• Be able to describe with examples the ways in which pollutants affect environmental systems.

Suggested Reading 
     Cunningham and Saigo 8th edition, Chapter 21.
     Miller , Chapter 21
 

Topic 2   Environmental Toxicology

An introduction to the toxic effects of environmental pollutants. Definitions and terminology. Acute versus chronic effects. LD50 and NOAEL and the effect of dose. Exposure to environmental toxins - sources of exposure and routes of entry into the body. Case Study - Pesticides and food additives -  exposure (Maximum Residue Level, Estimated Daily Intake) versus safe limits (Acceptable Daily Intake). Case Study - Drinking water quality, EC guidelines (Guide Levels and Maximum Admissible Concentration ).
 

The student should :-

• Be able to define terms such as hazardous, toxic, mutagenic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, hormone mimic ....
• Understand the difference between chronic and acute effects
• Be able to explain the concepts of dose response curve, LD50 and the No Observable Effect Level.
• Be able to describe the sources of exposure to pollutants and the routes of entry into the body
• Be able to explain the terms MRL, ADI, EDI, guide level and MAC and how they relate to controlling exposure to pollutants in the diet

Suggested Reading 
     Cunningham and Saigo, 8th edition, Chapter 8.
     Miller, Chapter 11 
 

Topic 3 Water Pollution

Diffuse and point sources of pollution. Movement of pollutants through soil, the importance of solubility, exchange and adsorption processes. Case Studies (sources of water pollution) - Nitrate fertilisers, Sewage treatment. The need for and use of fertilisers. Leaching of Nitrates from agricultural fertilisers. Treatment of sewage and discharge of sewage effluent. Biochemical oxygen demand and other effects on receiving water. Sewage sludge disposal. Case Studies (impacts of water pollution)  - Nitrate in drinking water, Eutrophication 

The student should :-

• Be able to distinguish between diffuse and point sources of water pollution.
• Be able to describe with appropriate examples the effects of soil processes on the movement of pollutants through soil.
• Understand the need for fertilisers and the reasons for nitrate leaching. Seasonal effects of water balance and crop growth, type of agriculture.
• Be able to outline the sewage treatment process and  describe the effects on rivers of discharges from sewage treatment works. BOD, oxygen sag curve.
• Be aware of the problems of disposal of sewage sludge.
• Be aware of the  concerns and risks of nitrate in drinking water and means of reducing levels.
• Understand the causes and impacts of eutrophication and means of reducing nutrient loading.

Suggested Reading
     Cunningham and Saigo, 8th edition, Chapter 18
     Miller, Chapter 19
 

Topic 4   Radioactivity in the Environment

Structure of the atom. Radioactive decay - types of decay and the concept of half life. Biological effects of radiation and the interaction of ionising radiation with matter. Short and long biological effects. Natural sources of radioactivity - primordial and cosmogenic nuclides. Artificial radionuclides, nuclear power and discharges nuclear weapons.Global releases of radioactivity  Exposure of UK population to natural and artificial radioactivity. Radon. Environmental applications of radio-tracer techniques, C-14 Pb-210, ocean currents.

The student should :-

• Understand the basic structure of the atom, the different types of radioactive decay and the concept of half lives.
• Be aware of, the interactions of radiation with matter and the impact on living organisms.
• Be aware of the units for measurement of exposure and understand the different responses to acute and chronic exposure.
• Understand the sources of primordial and cosmogenic radionuclides and how they can be concentrated in industrial processes.
• Be aware of the sources of artificial radioactivity - nuclear fission reactors, the nuclear fuel cycle nuclear weapons and discharges to the environment.
• Be aware of the relative importance of different sources of radioactivity in the UK in particular the radon problem.
• Understand the use of radio-tracers in environmental studies C-14, Pb-210 and Cs-135/Cs-137.

Suggested reading
     Cunningham and Saigo, 6th edition, Chapter 19
 

Topic 5   Pesticides in the Environment

Types of pesticides and history of their use. The case for the use of pesticides - disease control, crop production and storage. The environmental fate of pesticides. Development and environmental testing of new pesticides. Major groups of pesticides - uses and environmental impacts -  DDT and the organochlorines, the organophosphates, the pyrethroids 

The student should :-

• Be able to describe the major types of pesticides, their past and present pattern of use in developed and developing countries.
• Be able to make the case for pesticides in terms of disease control and world food production.
• Be able to explain the possible fates of a pesticide in the environment and be aware of those properties which reduce or increase its environmental impact.
• Be able to describe the processes and environmental testing involved in the production and registration of a new pesticide.
• Be able to describe the properties, history and environmental effects of DDT and the organochlorine insecticides, the organophosphate pesticides, and the pyrethoid insecticides.

Suggested Reading
     Cunningham and Saigo, 8th edition, Chapter 10 
     Miller, Chapter 20.

Topic 6   Environmentally Friendly Food

Organic agriculture and integrated crop management. Pest control and effects on farmland ecology. Cultural techniques, biological control methods. Conventional crop breeding compared to genetic engineering. Genetic engineering of crop plants. The GM crops debate - concerns and public attitudes.

The student should :-

• Be aware of the differences between organic agriculture and integrated crop management and the limitations of each.
• Be able to  describe with examples the pest control and ecological implications of cultural control methods using cultivation, crop rotation, field margins, beetle banks and barriers.
• Be able to  describe with examples the pest control and ecological implications of cultural control methods using sterile males, predators and diseases.
• Be aware of the use of BT and insect hormones for insect pest control.
• Understand and be able to give examples of the genetic engineering of crops for improved food quality and pest control including likely future developments.
• Be aware of the debate and concerns about GM foods.

Topic 7   Atmospheric Pollution

The structure of the atmosphere - troposhere, stratoshere, mesosphere and thermosphere.  Sources of air pollution. Acid rain - sources of pollutant gases, reactions in the atmosphere ,control measures and targets. Global warming - sources of pollutant gases, control measures and targets.

The student should :-

• Be able to describe the temperature profile of the atmosphere and identify the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere.
• Be aware of the main sources of atmospheric pollution.
• Be familiar with the acidic gases, their sources,  reactions in the atmosphere, control measures and targets to reduce their emissions.
• Be familiar with the greenhouse gases, their sources, control measures and targets to reduce their emissions.

 Topic 7  Depletion of the Ozone Layer

The ozone layer,  formation of ozone. Importance of ozone layer, impacts of UV light on living organisms. Mechanisms of ozone destruction. Chlorofluorocarbons and related compounds - chemistry, uses and impact on the ozone layer. Nitrous oxide sources and impact. The Antarctic ozone hole. The Montreal protocol and attempts to reduce atmospheric chlorine loading. 

The student should :-

• Be able to describe the formation of ozone and the stratospheric ozone layer .
• Be aware the importance of the ozone layer in the absorption of UV light  and the effect of UV light on living organisms.
• Be able to outline the chemical reactions involved in the destruction of ozone by nitrous oxides, CFCs and other chlorine compounds.
• Be familiar with the composition and uses of CFCs and related compounds and the sources of nitrous oxide.
• Be aware of the special conditions resulting in the formation of the Antarctic ozone hole.
• Be able to outline the provisions of the Montreal protocol and the projected effects of attempts to reduce atmospheric chlorine loading.

Suggested Reading
     Cunningham and Saigo, 8th edition, Chapter 16.
     Miller, chapter 18.
 

Environmentalism

Lecturer:  Dr Stewart White, Division of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology, IBLS

Outline:

A series of lectures on the origins and history of the environmental movement and where the movement stands at the beginning of a new millennium.  The lectures aim to:
 

• Outline the concept of a global ecosystem and interaction on a global scale.
• Identify the various strands involved in the development of the environmental movement.
• Examine the concept of environmental ethics.
• Consider the development of the environmental movement and NGO’s over the last 30 years.

The global ecosystem.  Reasons for current environmental problems.  Interaction of factors on a global scale.  Case study - tropical rainforests.  The 5 strands in the origin of the environmental movement.  Environmental ethics, religions, philosophies.  Utilitarianism versus biocentrism.  Fundamentalists and pragmatists.  The contribution of various individuals to environmentalism.  Active Conservation, Deep Ecology.

The student should:-

• Be able to explain the concept of the global ecosystem and give examples of factors interacting on a global scale.
• Be able to describe the reasons for the current environmental problems.
• Be able to list and describe the five strands in the development of the environmental movement.
• Be able to explain the distinction between fundamentalist and pragmatic conservationists and the distinctions between utilitarianism and biocentrism.Be able to describe the contributions made by John Muir, Gilbert White, Malthus Rachel Carson, Paul Ehrlich, Arne Naess and Garrett Hardin to the environmental movement.
• Be able to explain the concept of environmental ethics and describe the contributions made by religion and philosophy

Topic 2 Recent Developments

UN Conference Stockholm 1972.  Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth.  World Conservation Strategy.  Rio Earth Summit 1992 and Kyoto 1997.  The development of the ‘Green’ parties.  Broken promises since Rio.

The student should:-

• Be able to list some of the important initiatives of the Stockholm conference 1972.
• Be able to describe the development of Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth.
• Be able to list the important aims of the World Conservation Strategy.
• Be able to describe the major agreements of the Rio and Kyoto meetings and the subsequent failures of the major powers to adhere to them.
• Be able to describe the development of the green parties.

Earth Resources

Lecturer:  Dr Maggie Cusack, Geographical and Earth Sciences 

Outline:

An examination of the resources available on Earth including some consideration of criteria involved in resource exploitation decision making. Concentrate on physical, non-renewable resources - building materials, metals and fossil fuels. Also consider water as a resource, its availability and consequences of resource mismanagement. 
 

Topic 1.  Introduction to Physical Resources. Building Materials.

An introduction to the physical resources used to maintain society as we know it.  An appreciation that decisions to exploit a resource involves economic, social and political as well as environmental issues.  Overview of building materials and how their properties and uses relate to the rock cycle.

The student should:-

• Be able to explain why these resources are non-renewable
• Be able to list three factors that influence the use of a material as a physical resource
• Be able to name a sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous building stone and describe how their uses reflect their properties. 
• Be able to define the term ‘substitution’ as applied to physical resources. Give an example of substitution in a modern building material. 
• Be able to outline how aggregates are formed and list three current uses of aggregate
• Be able to describe how bricks are made, including the mineralogy involved
• Be able to define ‘limestone’. Name three classes of UK limestone and briefly describe their properties. List three uses of limestone.
• Be able to describe how cement and concrete are made

 Topic 2. Metal Resources and Rxploration

Overview of the geological processes (igneous, sedimentary and  hydrothermal) involved in the formation of metal ores with a major example of each of the three types of ores. Introduction to ore exploration.  Environmental impact of ore processing. 

The student should:-

• Be able to explain why metals are so important to modern society and list the properties of metals. 
• Be able to define an ore deposit
• Be able to describe how ore deposits are formed by igneous, sedimentary and hydrothermal processes and give an example of a major ore body of each of these three classes.
• Be able to outline the processes and timescales involved in ore exploration. 
• Be able to discuss the environmental impacts of ore exploration.

Topic 3. Energy – Fossil Fuels

Introduction to fossil fuel formation relating to the carbon cycle. An outline of the techniques involved in the discovery and recovery of petroleum. Some discussion of the future of fossil fuels.

The student should:-

• Be able to discuss the relative energy consumption of developing and developed countries. 
• Be able to outline the carbon cycle and the 8 main carbon reservoirs.
• Be able to describe how peat and coal are produced.
• Be able to explain the influence of heat and pressure on hydrocarbon maturation.
• Be able to explain why petroleum reservoirs are difficult to locate and outline the methods employed.
• Be able to define the terms ‘reservoir’, ‘seals’ and ‘traps’ in petroleum exploration.
• Be able to describe the environmental hazards associated with burning fossil fuels.

Topic 4.  Water Resources and Hydrogeology

An overview of the Water Cycle and examination of the reservoirs of fresh water. Importance of ground water.  Case Study of the London Aquifer. Sources and consequences of water pollution. Water treatment to improve water quality.

The student should:-

• Be able to outline the Water Cycle 
• Recall the volumetrically important reservoirs of fresh water Be able to define the terms porosity, permeability, groundwater, water table and aquifer
• Be able to describe the London aquifer and its geological setting. Summarise the potential future problems associated with the London aquifer and its past and current usage
• Be able to explain some causes of water pollution and their consequences
• Be able to summarise the processes involved in improving water quality by water treatment

Energy in the Environment

Lecturer: Dr. D.V. Land, Physics and Astronomy. 

Outline:

A series of 8 lectures on energy and the environment which aims to
 

• Provide a basic understanding of the scientific concepts of energy and energy conversion processes. 
• Review the world’s fossil fuel resources, their depletion, and the environmental impact of their use.
• Examine the promise and problems of nuclear energy. 
• Consider renewable energy sources with emphasis on their strengths and weaknesses for practical energy supply.

Topic Group 1:   Energy and Power: Fundamentals and Real World

An introduction to the basic concepts of energy and power. Descriptions of the different forms of energy of importance for modern societies. Energy and power definitions and units. The conservation of energy. Conversion between different forms of energy. Inherent and practical limitations on conversion efficiencies. Practical examples of energy and power production, conversion and use.

The student should:- 

•  Be able to describe different forms of energy and transformations of energy from one form to another. 
•  Be familiar with the units of energy and power and be able to calculate energy and power requirements for simple situations. 
•  Understand, explain and apply the concept of energy conservation (First Law of Thermodynamics).
•  Understand what is meant by the efficiency of an energy conversion process and appreciate the inherent and practical limitations on achievable efficiency.
•  Be familiar with the most important power generation processes and know the typical efficiencies that can be achieved in practice.

Suggested Reading: Cunningham and Saigo, 8th edition, Chapter 3 pp 54-55; Chapter 20 pp 428-435. 
http://serp.la.asu.edu/ChemPhy_dir/WorkEnTE.pdf

Topic Group 2:   Energy Resources and World Energy Use

Analysis of current world energy supplies and UK energy consumption. Trends in energy consumption. Fossil fuel reserves and environmental problems of using fossil fuels. 

The student should:-

• Be able to summarize the current world energy supplies and UK energy use. 
• Be able to describe the main trends in UK energy use.
• Be familiar with the resources and reserves of fossil fuels in the world. 
• Understand the social benefits and environmental costs of using coal, oil and natural gas.
• Understand the contributions to environmental pollution due to the use of fossil fuels by modern societies. 

Suggested Reading: Cunningham and Saigo, 8th edition, Chapter 19 pp 405-416. 
http://www.dti.gov.uk/energy/inform/energy_consumption/ecuk.pdf
 

Topic Group 3:  Nuclear Energy

Energy release by fission of uranium and plutonium. Advantages and disadvantages of nuclear fission for power production. The operation of a nuclear fission reactor. Nuclear waste and radiation hazards. 

The student should
Understand and be able to describe the basic process of uranium and plutonium nuclear fission for production of thermal power.

• Be able to explain how a nuclear fission reactor works. 
• Be aware of the options and problems for nuclear waste storage and disposal. 
• Be aware of the biological hazards of radiation.

Suggested Reading: Cunningham and Saigo, 8th edition, Chapter 19 pp 416-425.
 

Topic Group 4:  Renewable Energy Resources

The Sun as the Earth’s major source of renewable energy. The present limited use of renewable energy. Solar radiation. Active and passive solar heating. Solar thermal electric power generation. Photovoltaic conversion of solar to electrical energy. Wind energy and available wind power. Practical wind turbines and wind farms. Hydroelectric power generation and pumped storage schemes. Advantages of hydropower and environmental costs of large dams. Ocean wave energy. Wave energy availability and limitations. Devices for extraction of wave energy. Tidal energy, tidal barrages and tidal streams. Limitations of wind, wave and tidal power.  Biomass as a renewable energy source. Importance of energy storage for transport and electricity supply. Hydrogen as a secondary fuel. 

The student should

• Understand how most renewable energy is ultimately powered by radiation from the sun. 
• Appreciate the very limited use that modern societies are making of renewable energy resources.
• Understand how active and passive systems capture solar energy. 
• Be able to describe solar thermal and photovoltaic electric power generation. 
• Be able to explain how hydroelectric power is produced, its advantages and its contribution to the UK and the world's electrical power needs. 
• Be aware of the environmental problems associated with large dams. 
• Be able to describe the operation of a wind turbine including the dependence on wind speed and on the Betz efficiency limit. 
• Be aware of the magnitude of the development of the wind turbine industry and the potential for UK wind farms. 
• Be able to describe the operation of some devices proposed to extract ocean wave energy and the problems with their deployment. 
• Be aware of the use of tidal barrages for power generation and the problems associated with them. 
• Be aware of the potential of tidal streams for power generation.
• Be aware of the potential for biomass based power production.
• Be able to explain the importance of storing energy for power provision in modern societies and for transport. 
• Be aware of the advantages of oil as a transportable, relatively stable and high energy density source.
• Be aware of the potential of hydrogen as a secondary fuel.

Suggested Reading: Cunningham and Saigo, 8th edition, Chapter 20  Chapter 3 pp 55-57,
http://www.dti.gov.uk/energy/inform/energy_consumption/ecuk.pdf
 
 

Vulnerable Environments

Lecturer:  Dr Stewart White, Division of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology, IBLS

Outline:

These four lectures will first explain the value of the most diverse ecosystems on earth and then examine some selected examples in more detail, choosing the systems that are most at risk of destruction by human activities.  The lectures aim to:
 

• Provide a broad outline of biodiversity, its value and the consequences of habitat loss and species extinction.
• Focus on tropical rainforests and coral reefs as examples of ecosystems at risk.
• Consider the special cases of remote island ecosystems and agricultural ecosystems.

Topic 1 Biodiversity and Biomes

Definitions of biodiversity.  Species extinction and the value of biodiversity.  Ecosystems and habitat destruction.  Introduction to biomes at risk.  Temperate and tropical forests. 

The student should:-

• Be able to define biodiversity.
• Be able to explain the consequences of habitat destruction.
• Be able to compare temperate and tropical forests.

Topic 2 Tropical Rainforests

Occurrence and structure of tropical rainforest.  History and conditions for rainforest.  Rainforest's closed nutrient cycle.  Biodiversity of plants and animals and complexity of structure.  The value of rainforests and the consequences of their destruction.  History of forest clearances.  Threats to rainforest and problems with preservation programs.

The student should:-

• Be able to describe the structure of a tropical rainforest.
• Be able to account for the extreme biodiversity in rainforests.
• Be able to describe the contributions of rainforests to the planetary environment.
• Be able to explain the consequences of rainforest clearances.

Topic 3 Coral Reefs

Occurrence of coral reefs and the conditions for their growth.  Formation of reefs and the biology of stony corals and their unique symbiosis.  Biodiversity on coral reefs.  Value of reefs.  Natural and man-made threats to reefs.  Conservation efforts.

The student should:-

• Be able to describe the conditions need for coral reefs to flourish.
• Be able to describe the development of a coral atoll.
• Be able to explain how a coral reef is built.
• Be able to list the current threats to coral reefs.

Topic 4 Remote Islands and Agricultural Ecosystems

Isolated islands as examples of simplified ecosystems.  Evolution of unique island species: giant animals, flightless birds and insects.  Impact of man, disruption by invasive aliens, and the problems of conservation.  Farmlands as modified ecosystems.

The student should:-

• Be able to explain the reasons for unusual ecosystems on remote islands.
• Be able to describe the problems in protecting island ecosystems.
• Be able to give examples of remote islands and their fauna.
• Be able to define environmental protection in Europe.

The Natural Environment, Resources and their Use by Humans

Lecturer:  Dr Gordon Dickinson, Geographical and Earth Sciences 

Outline:

A series of 4 lectures which aims:
 

• To examine environmental systems at global scale, integrating the functioning of abiotic and biotic systems, 
• To assess the resource potentials provided by natural environmental systems
• To analyse the general concept of resources, and the implications of resource use for both environmental systems and human societies
• To assess the difficulties of resource use in a problem environment

Topic 1 Polar Environments

Assessment of the characteristics of climates in Antarctic and Arctic areas, including comparative evaluation of the differences between the two.
Life in polar areas; the importance of life in the ocean, the productivity and vulnerability of polar ecosystems

The student should be able to:-

• Explain the key characteristics of Antarctic and Arctic climate
• Relate these climatic regimes to abiotic and biotic environmental processes
• Explain the importance of marine ecosystems in polar regions
• Assess the nature of human resource opportunities in polar regions
• Assess the fragility of polar environments

Topic 2 Desert Environments

Assessment of the characteristics of hot desert climates. The role of water (presence and absence) in desert environments. Desert landscapes.
Life in desert areas. Adaptation to water scarcity. Resources in desert areas.

The student should:-

• Be able to define the key characteristics of desert climates
• Be able to assess the roles of water in shaping desert environments
• Be able to explain strategies adopted by different types of plants in adaptation to water scarcity
• Be able to assess the nature of resources in desert areas
• Be able to explain the problems of fragility in desert environments and ecosystems

Topic 3 Resources and the Environment

The nature of resources and their classification. Resources and technology
Resource use and management conflicts.

The student should:-

• Be able to Define different types of resources
• Appreciate the interactions between resources, their utilisation and the consequences of technological developments for resource utilisation
• Be able to Explain what is meant by resource use conflicts
• Be able to Give examples of resource use conflicts

Topic 4 The Environmental Problem in Africa

The African environment and its implications for resource use. Resource management systems.  Environmental degradation in Africa. Solutions for environmental degradation.

The student should:-

• Be able to Explain how environmental conditions in Africa have varied in recent decades
• Be able to Assess the human role in environmental change in Africa
• Be able to Explain a range of proposed and actual solutions for environmental degradation in Africa