Chemistry-1

Class Head: Dr. R.A. Hill

Course Documentation

Title: Trends and Patterns - the Periodic Table
Duration: 12 lectures, 3 workshops
Lecturers: Dr R D Peacock and Professor J M Winfield

Aims: to establish an understanding of the Periodic Table in order to be able to use it to rationalise chemical behaviour, to make predictions of the chemical behaviour of compounds so far not encountered, to appreciate the idea of molecular structure and scientific disciplines in the "real" world

Objectives:
1. recognise patterns among the elements in blocks, vertical columns and horizontal rows
2. understand the basis of atomic structure including the idea of energy level, quantum numbers and orbitals
3. know what the s, p, d and f orbitals are and how they form a logical base for building up the periodic table
4. recognise where in the periodic table metals and non-metals lie and identify borderline elements
5. count electrons in valence shells
6. understand the terms ionisation energy and electron affinity of an isolated atom and the electronegativity of an atom in a molecule
7. know how these terms vary through the periodic table
8. derive oxidation states of atoms within molecules by using relative electronegativities
9. use oxidation states to write balanced equations for redox reactions
10. derive the oxidation states that are possible for an element
11. derive Born-Haber enthalpy cycles for simple ionic compounds
12. state the effect that ion size and charge have on the lattice energy of an ionic solid
13. draw the NaCl lattice structure
14. describe the macroscopic properties of p-block elements that are the result of covalent bonds between the atoms
15. decide upon situations in which covalent bond formation is likely
16. recognise the transformation from non-metal to metal going down a group and from right to left across a period
17. use the VSEPR approach to predict and draw the shapes of covalent p-block molecules
18. appreciate the main features of nuclear structure and the common types of radioactive decay

Course Outlines: the development and significance of the Periodic Table; atomic structure and atomic orbitals; the relationship of the Periodic Table to atomic structure; blocks, columns and rows; trends in properties such as ion size, ionisation potential, electron affinity, electronegativity; oxidation states; balance redox equations; Born-Haber cycles; ionic lattice structure, p-block elements, covalent bonding, polarity, VSEPR rules and molecular shape; radioactivity

Title: Attractions and repulsions

Duration: 6 lectures
Lecturer: Dr C. J. Gilmore

Aims: To understand intermolecular forces and their different modes of action, and to see how they determine the properties of the bulk materials such as melting point.

Objectives:
1. understand the concepts of ionic and covalent bonds and how they arise.
2. understand the concepts of bond polarity, dipole, dipole moment and bond dipole.
3. be able to predict the bond dipole in simple situations for elements in periods 1,2 and 3 and groups 1 to 17.
4. understand attractive forces and be able to quote examples of them and have an idea of their relative strengths and be able to predict which of the intermolecular forces are operating for simple compounds.
5. be able to predict, in a general way, the properties of simple substances once the intermolecular forces have been ascertained.
6. know that non-ideal gas behaviour leads to the van der Waals equation and be able to use it in simple situations.
7. understand the different forces operating in solids and why the properties of the different sorts of materials are quite different, and what these properties are.
8. understand how the molecules are arranged in liquid crystals and how liquid crystal displays (LCDs) work.
9. understand the general principles of. X-ray crystallography.

Course outline: Ionic bonds, covalent bonds, bond polarity, dipole, dipole moment and bond dipoles. Ion-ion interactions in ionic solids; Atom-atom interactions in metals; Dipole-dipole interactions; Hydrogen bonding; London (or dispersion) forces and how these forces manifest themselves in the behaviour of melting points, boiling points, vapour pressures, and deviations from the ideal gas laws. Ionic, metallic, covalent network and molecular solids. Liquid crystals. General principles of X-ray crystallography.

Title: Chemical Kinetics
Duration: 5 lectures + 1 workshop
Lecturer: Dr. A.A. Freer

Aims: to introduce basic terms of chemical kinetics: to understand that information about reaction rates is gained experimentally by exploring the factors which influence them, such as concentrations of reactants, temperature and presence of catalysts: to recognise that we can deduce a substantial amount of information about reaction pathways and reaction control in both a chemical and biological (enzyme) environment by studying reaction kinetics.

Objectives:
1. understand the rate of reaction, the factors which can influence it and the reaction order
2. define the rate constant and understand the rate law of a reaction
3. understand the method of initial rates for determination of the order and the rate constant of a reaction
4. understand the use of the integrated rate equations for first and second order reactions to determine the rate constant from concentration and time data
5. define the half-life of the first-order reactions
6. understand the Arrhenius equation, Arrhenius plot, Ea, and the activated complex
7. understand what is meant by the complex and elementary reactions, molecularity of an elementary reaction, reaction mechanism, reaction intermediate and the rate determining step of a complex reaction
8. understand the use of catalysts and biological catalysts (enzymes) and distinguish between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalytic processes

Course Outline: definition of reaction rate; variation with time; rate law; reaction order; initial rate method for determination of rate law; integrated rate equations for first and second order reactions; graphical methods; half-life; activation energy; Arrhenius equation; determination of Ea from temperature dependence of k; simple and complex reactions; molecularity of simple reaction; reaction mechanism, reaction intermediate and rate determining steps; catalysis and enzymes

Title: Organic Chemistry
Duration: 18 lectures + 2 workshops
Lecturers: Professor J.D. Connolly and Dr R.A. Hill
Aims: to introduce the principles of organic chemistry

Objectives:
1. understand structural isomerism and the various conventions for drawing structures
2. recognise functional groups, be able to use organic nomenclature and identify primary, secondary, tertiary alkyl groups
3. relate physical properties to polarity, M.Wt. and hydrogen bonding and understand the terms chirality, optical activity, enantiomers, racemates
4. know preparations and properties of alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, interpret the properties of alkenes in terms of p bonding and understand geometric isomerism
5. use Markovnikov's rule to predict orientation of HX additions and explain the rule on the basis of carbonium ion (carbocation or carbenium ion) stability
6. count electrons in molecules, ions and radicals; relate formal charge to electron arrangement, and understand the terms homolysis, heterolysis, nucleophile and electrophile and understand curly arrow drawings of mechanisms
7. deduce structures from experimental evidence and predict products of reactions
8. know methods of preparing alkyl halides and the substitution reactions which alkyl halides undergo with nucleophiles including the mechanism and stereochemistry of SN2 and SN1 reactions
9. know that many alkyl halides can react with bases to give often more than one alkene by elimination and that alkyl halides can react with magnesium to give organomagnesium halides (Grignard reagents) which are useful in synthesis
10. know methods of making alcohols and some of their physical properties in terms of hydrogen bonding and how primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols behave towards oxidising agents, that alcohols can form alkoxide ions and that protonated alcohols can undergo substitution and elimination (dehydration) reactions
11. know methods of making ethers and appreciate their chemically inert nature
12. know how to prepare and name aldehydes and ketones and understand the bonding and polarity of the carbonyl group
13. know how nucleophilic reagents that add to the carbonyl group and the types of compounds produced and appreciate that addition may be followed by substitution leading to acetals, or by elimination leading to imines
14. know that formation of dinitrophenylhydrazones (DNPs) is a good test for aldehydes and ketones, and that semicarbazones are good crystalline derivatives
15. understand that aldehydes may be distinguished from ketones by oxidation of aldehydes to carboxylic acids
16. know how to name and prepare carboxylic acids and understand the acidity of the COOH group in terms of delocalisation of charge in the anion
17. know methods of preparing esters and how to name them and that esters can be hydrolysed in aqueous acid or in aqueous alkali
18. know typical reactions of acid chlorides
19. understand the preparation and names of primary, secondary and tertiary amines and the related ammonium ions and understand the basicity of amines, and the neutrality of quaternary ammonium ions
20. predict the products of reaction of amines with acids, alkyl halides, acid chlorides, esters and anhydrides
21. account for the shape, polarity and neutrality of amides in terms of delocalisation of electrons
22. know the products and mechanisms of hydrolysis and reduction of esters and amides
23. account for the shape, stability and chemical reactions of benzene in terms of delocalisation of electrons and name simple substituted benzenes using numbers, and the ortho, meta and para relationships
24. know that the properties of some groups attached to benzene are modified by the benzene ring and account for the acidity of phenols terms of delocalisation in the anion
25. know the products and mechanism of bromination of benzene

Course Outline: Natural and synthetic covalent structures; examples of simple compounds of everyday, industrial and medicinal importance; combustion analysis and molecular weights; structural isomers with tetrahedral, trigonal and digonal carbons; rotation about single bonds and equivalent hydrogens; drawing organic structures; polar and non-polar bonds; functional groups and nomenclature; lone pairs, VSEPR rule applications and s and p bonds; chirality and geometrical isomerism; physical properties related to structure, hydrogen bonding and polarity; electron counting; stabilisation by electron delocalisation (resonance and aromaticity); reaction mechanisms understood in terms of electron pair movement indicated by curly arrows; nucleophiles and electrophiles; Markovnikov's rule for addition; SN and SE and elimination reactions; nucleophilic addition followed by elimination; the foregoing principles developed alongside the chemistry of alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, polymers, alkyl halides, alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and their derivatives, amines and amides and simple benzene derivatives.

Title: Chemical Energy Changes
Duration: 8 lectures + 1 workshop
Lecturers: Dr. K.C. Campbell
Aims: To develop an understanding of the energy changes occurring during chemical reactions and their effects in determining the direction of chemical change and the extent to which reactions will proceed to a state of equilibrium.

Objectives:
1. understand the concept of an ideal gas, an absolute scale of temperature, and the relationship PV = nRT
2. appreciate that there are different forms of energy and understand the principle of the conservation of energy applied to chemical systems
3. know the factors which determine the direction of chemical change, and appreciate why spontaneous reactions can be either exothermic or endothermic.
4. understand the connection between disorder and entropy and define entropy in terms of heat and temperature.
5. define free energy change DG0 in terms of (a) maximum work obtainable and (b) balance between enthalpy and entropy changes.
6. recognise that electrode potential measurements can be used for direct determination of free energy change.
7. use the relationship DG0 = -RTlnKp and appreciate that chemical equilibrium is dynamic, its position can be determined from a knowledge of DG0 and at equilibrium DG = 0
8. appreciate that the value of DG0 or K the equilibrium constant tells you nothing about the rate of reaction, and that a catalyst has no effect on K.
9. understand how oxidation-reduction reactions can take place in a cell to produce electrical energy and understand the principles of electrolysis and electrolytic cells.

Course outline: Ideal gas, absolute temperature and PV = nRT. The different forms of energy, conservation of energy, spontaneous reactions, exothermic and endothermic reactions. Entropy and disorder. Enthalpy and free energy changes. Electrode potentials. Chemical equilibrium. Oxidation reduction potentials, electrolysis and electrolytic cells.

Title: Solutions and pH
Duration: 6 lectures + 1 workshop
Lecturer: Dr. D.N.J. White
Aims: to investigate what happens when different substance are dissolved in water and see what evidence there is for dissociation into ions, to see how to calculate the pH of solutions of acids, bases, and salts, and to learn how to make up buffer solutions.

Objectives:
1. explain why water has such high values for most of its physical properties, know the relative strengths of a hydrogen bond and a covalent bond and account for the lower density of ice compared with water
2. explain why water is such a good solvent for many ionic solids and polar molecules and know what is meant by dielectric constant
3. know the dissociation state of strong and weak electrolytes in aqueous solution
4. understand what is meant by a, the degree of dissociation, for weak electrolytes and calculate dissociation constants for weak acids and weak bases from a and c
5. know what is meant by the ionic product of water, by pH, and be able to calculate pH from [H+], and vice versa, for strong acids; and pH from [OH–], and vice versa, for strong bases
6. know the Arrhenius and Brønstead-Lowry definitions of acids and bases
7. know how to calculate the pH, Ka, and pKa of a weak acid solution and how to calculate the pOH, pH, Kb, and pKb of a weak base solution from a, the degree of dissociation, and c.
8. know how to calculate the pH and a for a weak base solution from Kb, and for a weak acid solution from Ka, and the concentration and the relationship between Ka for a weak acid and Kb for its conjugate base
9. know what is meant by a buffer solution and how to calculate to pH of a buffer solution using the Henderson equation
10. know the acidity or basicity (qualitatively) of the four classes of salt solutions
11. know the pH changes in acid-base titrations and understand how the Henderson equation explains the functioning of a pH indicator

Course Outlines: water a solvent; hydrogen bonding; dipoles; dielectric constant; ice structure; concentrations; electrolytes; degree of dissociation; pH; common ion effect; dissociation constant for weak acids and bases; various definitions of acids and bases; Ka and Kb; pH calculation for strong and weak acids and bases; K = a2c/(1-a); extent of ionization of weak acids and bases at various pHs; salt hydrolysis; buffers; Henderson equation, importance in biology; titration curves; indicators

Title: Transition metals
Duration: 6 lectures
Lecturers: Dr R J Cross
Aims: to develop the chemistry of the d-block elements, to explain their shapes, colours and magnetic properties, to relate these as far as possible to the presence of d-electrons, to give an appreciation of how some d-block compounds are used in the real world.

Objectives:
1. know the factors which determine the energies of the d electrons relative to the s and p electrons
2. write the valence shell electronic configurations of the d block elements in various oxidation states and derive the oxidation states that are possible or a given element
3. know what is meant by coordination compound, complex ion, coordination number, ligand, Lewis acid, Lewis base
4. know and be able to draw the preferred shapes for molecules and coordination complexes having coordination numbers 4 and 6
5. state what is meant by the denticity of a ligand and be able to give examples of monodentate and bidentate ligands
6. understand what is meant be the terms isomer and isomerism
7. recognise and be able to draw cis-trans, mer-fac and chiral isomers
8. appreciate the concept of Crystal Field Theory and how it can be used to explain the colours and magnetic properties of octahedral d block element complexes
9. know the occurrence and use of selected complexes

Course Outlines: electronic configurations of d block elements; oxidation states; coordination compounds, shapes, ligands, geometries, isomers, colour and magnetic properties; Crystal Field Theory used to explain colour and magnetic properties; selected uses.

Title: Big Molecules
Duration: 8 lectures
Lecturers: Professor J.D. Connolly and Dr R.A. Hill
Aims: to review the structures, preparation, properties and uses of synthetic macromolecules and to introduce the chemistry of the main food components and to show how the structures are related to their physical and nutritional characteristics

Objectives:
1. define and use the terms monomer, polymer, macromolecule, repeat unit and list distinct properties associated with macromolecules
2. describe mechanisms by which alkenes can be polymerised and explain why these lead to a range of molecular weights and list structures, properties and application of various poly(alkene)s
3. draw representative structures for polyamides, polyesters, polyethers and silicones and describe ways of making these and understand how cross-linking can be achieved in such cases
4. relate the physical properties, biodegradability and applications to the functional groups in the back bone and side chains and understand how side-chain functional groups can be utilised in applications (e.g. polyacrylic acid, sulphonated polystyrene, etc.)
5. know the names of the principal carbohydrates found in food and have a general understanding of their structures and their properties and be aware of the basis of the nomenclature of carbohydrates and the common mono- and di- saccharides
6. draw the structure of glucose in its open and cyclised forms and relate the chemistry of acetals and hemicetals to sugar chemistry
7. draw the structures of the common triglycerides and understand their hydrolysis reactions and relate the structures of fats to their properties
8. relate the chemistry of amino acids and amides to the chemistry of proteins and be able to draw the products of hydrolysis of simple peptides and understand the structural features of proteins and how this relates to their function

Course Outline: Polyalkenes, polyesters, polyamides, polyethers, polyurethanes; mechanisms of alkene polymerisation, addition and condensation polymerisation, range of MWt, conformation, flexibility, glass transition, stability to heat, fire, solvents; backbone and side-chain functional groups; crosslinking, resins; application related to structure; biodegradation; Natural molecules, fats, proteins, sugars, cellulose, vitamins, tastes and colorants; esters, amides, acetals, metabolism, hydrolysis, oxidation, dietary requirements;